Introduction to Sudan’s Civil War and FoRB Challenges
Since April 2023, Sudan has been engulfed in a devastating civil war between the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF) and the Rapid Support Forces (RSF). This conflict has triggered one of the world’s worst humanitarian crises, severely threatening civilians from diverse religious, ethnic, and tribal backgrounds. While the war primarily centers on military and political control, it has had profound consequences for freedom of religion or belief (FoRB) and human rights across the nation. Despite Sudan’s historic reforms between 2019 and 2021, the ongoing violence has reversed much of the progress made towards religious freedom, amplifying fear and social fragmentation.
This blog post explores the evolving environment of religious freedom in Sudan amid the civil war, highlighting attacks on places of worship, arbitrary detentions, the threat of religious authoritarianism, inequities in humanitarian aid, and international responses.
Historical Context: From Reform to Renewed Conflict
Authoritarian Religious Policies under Omar al-Bashir
For three decades under President Omar al-Bashir (1989–2019), Sudan enforced a strict interpretation of Shari’a law on all citizens, suppressing religious minorities and dissenting Muslims alike. Apostasy and blasphemy laws were aggressively applied, often targeting women harshly. This era was marked by systemic religious oppression and limited human rights protections.
Transition and Historic Progress (2019–2021)
The 2019 revolution ended Bashir’s regime, ushering in a joint civilian-military transitional government led by Prime Minister Abdalla Hamdok. This administration enacted critical reforms to improve FoRB, including repealing blasphemy and apostasy laws and eliminating a restrictive public order law. These legislative changes marked unprecedented progress toward religious freedom in Sudan.
Military Coup and Escalation of Conflict
Despite reforms, the military dissolved the transitional government in October 2021, with General Abdel Fattah al-Burhan (SAF) and RSF commander Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo (“Hemedti”) consolidating power. Tensions between the SAF and RSF escalated into full-scale war by April 2023, resulting in widespread devastation, displacement of over 12 million people, and international determinations of war crimes and genocide by RSF forces.
The Current Religious Freedom Environment in Sudan
Demographics and Religious Diversity
Sudan’s estimated population is approximately 49 million, predominantly Sunni Muslim (91%), with Christians constituting about 5.4%, followed by indigenous faiths and smaller minority religions such as Shi’a Muslims, Jews, Baha’is, and Hindus. The Christian community comprises at least 36 denominations across Orthodox, Catholic, and Protestant branches. Sufism plays a significant role within Sunni Islam, although it faces suspicion from Salafi groups.
Attacks on Houses of Worship
Both SAF and RSF have repeatedly targeted religious sites, including churches and mosques, often for tactical military advantages but at great cost to civilians and religious freedom.
- Christian Churches: Over 165 churches have been forced to close due to looting, bombings, and assaults. Notable incidents include:
- RSF seizure and vandalism of the Anglican Cathedral in Khartoum (April 2023).
- Burning of the Evangelical Church of Wad Madani (January 2024).
- RSF attack on the Sudanese Church of Christ in Al Jazirah, injuring worshipers (December 2024).
- SAF airstrike on Al Ezba Baptist Church killing 11 (December 2024).
- Demolition of a Pentecostal church by SAF (July 2025).
These attacks have forced Christian communities to worship covertly to avoid violence.
- Mosques: Mosques have also suffered from indiscriminate strikes and vandalism:
- RSF drone strike on Radwan Mosque during Ramadan prayers, killing 11 (March 2024).
- Militia allied with SAF detonated explosives inside Sheikh Qarib Allah Mosque (March 2024).
- RSF destroyed three mosques in El Fasher, killing at least 11 worshipers (July 2024).
- SAF airstrikes on Sheikh Elsidiq and Sheikh El Jeili Mosques killing several worshipers (December 2024).
These attacks underscore both forces’ failure to protect religious sites and civilians.
Arbitrary Detentions and Human Rights Violations
Christians, in particular, have been subject to arbitrary arrests and harsh detention conditions:
- Detention of 19 Christians affiliated with the Sudan Council of Churches in Madani (March 2025), involving harsh interrogation.
- SAF Military Intelligence Unit detained 26 men in Shendi (October 2024), many Christians, with reports of physical abuse and isolation.
- Detention centers under SAF and RSF have been described as overcrowded, unhygienic, and lacking adequate food and water. Muslim detainees have been forced to pray under duress or without ablution, often beaten for unauthorized prayers.
These conditions severely restrict detainees’ religious expression and violate basic human rights.
Threat of Resurgence of Religious Authoritarianism
The collapse of the transitional government has emboldened paramilitary groups seeking to restore religious authoritarianism reminiscent of the Bashir era.
- The Al-Bara’ibn Malik Brigade, allied with SAF, advocates for a return to strict religious governance and wields influence over military decisions.
- The RSF’s roots in the Janjaweed militias, notorious for genocidal violence in Darfur, highlight ongoing threats to ethnic and religious minorities.
- Recent constitutional changes by the military government reversed reforms that had repealed blasphemy and apostasy laws, signaling a potential regression to repressive religious policies.
This trend raises serious concerns about Sudan’s future religious freedom and human rights landscape.
Religious and Ethnic Inequities in Humanitarian Aid Distribution
The civil war has also politicized humanitarian aid, with SAF and RSF manipulating aid delivery based on religious and ethnic lines:
- SAF reportedly blocked aid to regions like the Nuba Mountains, home to minority communities.
- RSF fighters coerced Christians in Wad Madani to convert to Islam to receive aid (October 2024).
- Fragmented territorial control, especially in South Kordofan, has made aid delivery nearly impossible to vulnerable minority groups.
Such practices exacerbate suffering and deepen social divisions.
International Engagement and U.S. Response
U.S. Policy and Sanctions
- In December 2023, U.S. Secretary of State Antony Blinken declared war crimes by SAF and RSF; in January 2025, the RSF was designated responsible for genocide.
- Sanctions were imposed on RSF leader Hemedti for gross human rights violations.
- However, Executive Order 14169 in January 2025 suspended all U.S. foreign aid to Sudan, affecting humanitarian and religious freedom programs, including legal aid initiatives for religious minorities.
Congressional Initiatives
- The Sudanese Peace Act (H.R. 1939), reintroduced in March 2025, calls for a U.S. special envoy, enhanced civilian protection, humanitarian assistance, and peace progress.
- Congressional hearings have emphasized the urgent need for a strategic U.S. approach to Sudan’s crisis.
Need for a Cohesive International Strategy
Given Sudan’s regional importance and ongoing humanitarian crisis, experts recommend a tailored, coordinated international response focusing on civilian protection, religious freedom, and conflict resolution.
Conclusion: A Nation at a Crossroads
Sudan’s civil war has tragically reversed years of progress in religious freedom and human rights, plunging millions into violence, displacement, and fear. Both SAF and RSF have perpetrated attacks on religious communities and places of worship, engaged in arbitrary detention, and manipulated humanitarian aid distribution along ethnic and religious lines. The resurgence of religious authoritarian groups and regressive policies threatens to further undermine FoRB protections.
Sustained international attention and strategic engagement are critical to supporting Sudan’s path to peace, safeguarding religious freedom, and protecting vulnerable communities amid this protracted conflict.
About USCIRF
The United States Commission on International Religious Freedom (USCIRF) is an independent, bipartisan agency established by the U.S. Congress to monitor and advocate for religious freedom worldwide. USCIRF provides policy recommendations aimed at deterring religious persecution and promoting freedom of religion or belief globally.
For more information, visit www.USCIRF.gov.
This blog post summarizes key insights from USCIRF’s August 2025 issue update on Sudan’s civil war and its implications for freedom of religion or belief.
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